en_source.json

{
  "1": {
    "ions": "H⁺ (Hydrogen ion), H⁻ (Hydride)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1766",
      "discoveredBy": "Henry Cavendish",
      "namedBy": "Antoine Lavoisier"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Energy transition (Fuel Cells)",
      "Hydrogen as energy carrier",
      "Heavy Water (D₂O) in CANDU reactors"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Ammonia Production",
      "Hydrogenation"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly flammable",
      "Explosion risk"
    ]
  },
  "2": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1868 (spectral); 1895 (isolated)",
      "discoveredBy": "William Ramsay, Per Teodor Cleve",
      "namedBy": "Lockyer & Frankland"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Cryogenics (MRI supermagnets)",
      "Non-renewable resource conservation"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "MRI cooling",
      "Lifting gas (balloons)",
      "Shielding gas (welding)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Asphyxiant in confined spaces"
    ]
  },
  "3": {
    "ions": "Li⁺ (Lithium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1817",
      "discoveredBy": "Johan August Arfwedson",
      "namedBy": "Jöns Jakob Berzelius"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Battery technology (EV revolution)",
      "Mental health (Mood stabilizers)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Li-ion batteries",
      "Ceramics",
      "Lubricants"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Reacts vigorously with water",
      "Corrosive"
    ]
  },
  "4": {
    "ions": "Be²⁺ (Beryllium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1798",
      "discoveredBy": "Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin",
      "namedBy": "Friedrich Wöhler"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Aerospace engineering (James Webb Telescope mirrors)",
      "Nuclear physics (Neutron reflector)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "X-ray windows",
      "Non-sparking tools (alloys)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly toxic (Berylliosis)",
      "Carcinogenic"
    ]
  },
  "5": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1808",
      "discoveredBy": "Gay-Lussac & Thénard (and Davy)",
      "namedBy": "Derived from \"Borax\""
    },
    "stse": [
      "Agriculture (Essential plant nutrient)",
      "Nuclear safety (Control rods)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Pyrex glass (Borosilicate)",
      "Fiberglass",
      "Detergents"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity as element",
      "some compounds toxic"
    ]
  },
  "6": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "Prehistoric",
      "discoveredBy": "Ancient Civilizations",
      "namedBy": "Antoine Lavoisier"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Climate Change (Carbon Cycle)",
      "Organic Chemistry (Basis of Life)",
      "Radiocarbon dating"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Steel manufacturing",
      "Filters",
      "Gemstones",
      "Fuels"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "CO/CO₂ from combustion",
      "dust inhalation"
    ]
  },
  "7": {
    "ions": "N³⁻ (Nitride)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1772",
      "discoveredBy": "Daniel Rutherford",
      "namedBy": "Jean-Antoine Chaptal"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Agriculture (Haber-Bosch Process/Fertilizers)",
      "Cryogenics (Liquid N₂)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Fertilizers",
      "Explosives",
      "Food packaging (inert atmosphere)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Asphyxiant (displaces oxygen)"
    ]
  },
  "8": {
    "ions": "O²⁻ (Oxide)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1774",
      "discoveredBy": "Joseph Priestley / Carl Wilhelm Scheele",
      "namedBy": "Antoine Lavoisier"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Biological respiration",
      "Combustion engines",
      "Ozone layer protection"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Steel making",
      "Medical life support",
      "Water treatment"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Oxidizer (accelerates fire)"
    ]
  },
  "9": {
    "ions": "F⁻ (Fluoride)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1886",
      "discoveredBy": "Henri Moissan",
      "namedBy": "Humphry Davy (suggested)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Dental health (Water fluoridation)",
      "Nuclear fuel (UF₆ enrichment)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Teflon (PTFE)",
      "Toothpaste",
      "Refrigerants"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly toxic",
      "Corrosive",
      "Reacts with almost everything"
    ]
  },
  "10": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1898",
      "discoveredBy": "William Ramsay & Morris Travers",
      "namedBy": "Ramsay (from Greek neos)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Lighting technology",
      "Lasers"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Neon signs",
      "High-voltage indicators",
      "Cryogenics"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Asphyxiant"
    ]
  },
  "11": {
    "ions": "Na⁺ (Sodium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1807",
      "discoveredBy": "Humphry Davy",
      "namedBy": "Humphry Davy"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Human biology (Nerve impulses)",
      "Nuclear reactors (Coolant in fast breeders)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Table salt (NaCl)",
      "Street lights",
      "Soap making"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Reacts violently with water"
    ]
  },
  "12": {
    "ions": "Mg²⁺ (Magnesium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1755 (Identified); 1808 (Isolated)",
      "discoveredBy": "Joseph Black (Id.); Humphry Davy (Iso.)",
      "namedBy": "Derived from Magnesia district"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Biological photosynthesis (Chlorophyll center)",
      "Lightweight alloys"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Aerospace alloys",
      "Flares/Fireworks",
      "Antacids"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Flammable (metal fire difficult to extinguish)"
    ]
  },
  "13": {
    "ions": "Al³⁺ (Aluminum)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1825",
      "discoveredBy": "Hans Christian Ørsted",
      "namedBy": "Humphry Davy"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Recycling (Infinite recyclability)",
      "Transportation efficiency (Lightweighting)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Aircraft structures",
      "Cans/Foil",
      "Power lines"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Dust is flammable/explosive"
    ]
  },
  "14": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1824",
      "discoveredBy": "Jöns Jakob Berzelius",
      "namedBy": "Thomas Thomson"
    },
    "stse": [
      "The Digital Age (Semiconductors/Microchips)",
      "Solar energy (Photovoltaics)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Electronics",
      "Glass/Concrete (as Silicates)",
      "Silicones"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Silicosis (chronic dust inhalation)"
    ]
  },
  "15": {
    "ions": "P³⁻ (Phosphide)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1669",
      "discoveredBy": "Hennig Brand",
      "namedBy": "Derived from Greek Light-bearing"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Agriculture (Essential fertilizer)",
      "Biology (DNA backbone/ATP)",
      "Eutrophication"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Fertilizers",
      "Matchboxes (Red P)",
      "Steel production"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "P allotrope is highly toxic and pyrophoric (ignites in air)"
    ]
  },
  "16": {
    "ions": "S²⁻ (Sulfide)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "Prehistoric",
      "discoveredBy": "Ancient Civilizations",
      "namedBy": "Antoine Lavoisier (established as element)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Industrial Chemistry (Sulfuric acid production)",
      "Environmental Science (Acid Rain/SO₂)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Fertilizers",
      "Gunpowder",
      "Vulcanization of rubber"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "SO₂ gas is toxic and corrosive"
    ]
  },
  "17": {
    "ions": "Cl⁻ (Chloride)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1774",
      "discoveredBy": "Carl Wilhelm Scheele",
      "namedBy": "Humphry Davy (from Greek chloros)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Public Health (Water chlorination/Disinfection)",
      "Chemical Warfare (WWI Choking gas)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "PVC (Plastics)",
      "Bleach",
      "Water purification"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly toxic gas",
      "Pulmonary irritant"
    ]
  },
  "18": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1894",
      "discoveredBy": "Lord Rayleigh & William Ramsay",
      "namedBy": "From Greek argos (lazy/inactive)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Preservation (Museum documents stored in Ar)",
      "Atmospheric science"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Welding (Shielding gas)",
      "Incandescent light bulbs",
      "Double-pane windows"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Asphyxiant in confined spaces"
    ]
  },
  "19": {
    "ions": "K⁺ (Potassium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1807",
      "discoveredBy": "Humphry Davy",
      "namedBy": "Humphry Davy (from 'Potash')"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Agriculture (NPK Fertilizers)",
      "Geology (K-Ar dating)",
      "Biology (Nerve transmission)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Fertilizers",
      "Soaps",
      "Gunpowder (KNO₃)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Reacts violently with water"
    ]
  },
  "20": {
    "ions": "Ca²⁺ (Calcium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1808",
      "discoveredBy": "Humphry Davy",
      "namedBy": "From Latin calx (lime)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Construction (Concrete/Cement chemistry)",
      "Human Anatomy (Bones/Teeth structure)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Cement",
      "Steelmaking (Desulfurization)",
      "Dietary supplements"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Reacts with water (slowly compared to Na/K)"
    ]
  },
  "21": {
    "ions": "Sc³⁺ (Scandium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1879",
      "discoveredBy": "Lars Fredrik Nilson",
      "namedBy": "From Latin Scandia (Scandinavia)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Prediction validation (Mendeleev predicted it as 'Eka-boron')"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Aerospace alloys (Aluminum-Scandium for MiG fighters)",
      "Stadium lighting"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Elemental dust is flammable"
    ]
  },
  "22": {
    "ions": "Ti³⁺ (Titanium(III)), Ti⁴⁺ (Titanium(IV))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1791",
      "discoveredBy": "William Gregor",
      "namedBy": "Martin Heinrich Klaproth (Titans of mythology)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Medical Engineering (Biocompatible implants)",
      "Aerospace (High strength-to-weight ratio)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Joint replacements",
      "Aircraft engines",
      "Pigment (TiO₂)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Nontoxic (biologically inert)"
    ]
  },
  "23": {
    "ions": "V²⁺ (Vanadium(II)), V³⁺ (Vanadium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1801",
      "discoveredBy": "Andrés Manuel del Río",
      "namedBy": "Nils Gabriel Sefström (Vanadis, Norse goddess)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Materials Science (High-speed steel tools)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Ferrovanadium alloys (Tools, Axles)",
      "Sulfuric acid catalyst (V₂O₅)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Compounds (especially V₂O₅) are toxic"
    ]
  },
  "24": {
    "ions": "Cr²⁺ (Chromium(II)), Cr³⁺ (Chromium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1797",
      "discoveredBy": "Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin",
      "namedBy": "From Greek chroma (color)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Corrosion protection (Stainless steel passivation)",
      "Environmental Toxicology (Hexavalent chromium)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Stainless steel (minimum 10.5%)",
      "Chrome plating",
      "Pigments"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Cr(VI) is carcinogenic and highly toxic",
      "Cr(III) essentiality debated in modern literature"
    ]
  },
  "25": {
    "ions": "Mn²⁺ (Manganese(II)), Mn³⁺ (Manganese(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1774",
      "discoveredBy": "Johan Gottlieb Gahn",
      "namedBy": "Derived from Magnesia"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Metallurgy (Essential for steel strength)",
      "Batteries (Alkaline cells)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Steel alloys",
      "Aluminum beverage cans",
      "Dry cell batteries (MnO₂)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Manganism (neurotoxicity) from chronic dust inhalation"
    ]
  },
  "26": {
    "ions": "Fe²⁺ (Iron(II)), Fe³⁺ (Iron(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "Prehistoric (~4000 BCE)",
      "discoveredBy": "Ancient Civilizations (Iron Age)",
      "namedBy": "From Anglo-Saxon iren (Symbol Fe from Latin ferrum)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Civilization development (Steel infrastructure)",
      "Biology (Hemoglobin/Oxygen transport)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Construction (Steel)",
      "Vehicles",
      "Machinery"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity",
      "acute overdose toxic"
    ]
  },
  "27": {
    "ions": "Co²⁺ (Cobalt(II)), Co³⁺ (Cobalt(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1735",
      "discoveredBy": "Georg Brandt",
      "namedBy": "From German Kobold (goblin/spirit)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Renewable Energy (EV Batteries)",
      "Medical (Radiation therapy Co-60)",
      "Biology (Vitamin B12)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Lithium-ion battery cathodes",
      "Superalloys (Turbines)",
      "Blue pigments"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Toxic",
      "Skin sensitizer"
    ]
  },
  "28": {
    "ions": "Ni²⁺ (Nickel(II)), Ni³⁺ (Nickel(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1751",
      "discoveredBy": "Axel Fredrik Cronstedt",
      "namedBy": "From Kupfernickel (Devil's copper)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Currency (Coins)",
      "Alloys (Stainless steel)",
      "Catalysis (Hydrogenation)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Stainless steel",
      "Batteries",
      "Plating",
      "Coins"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Common allergen (contact dermatitis)"
    ]
  },
  "29": {
    "ions": "Cu⁺ (Copper(I)), Cu²⁺ (Copper(II))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "Prehistoric (~9000 BCE)",
      "discoveredBy": "Middle Eastern Civilizations",
      "namedBy": "From Latin Cyprium (Metal of Cyprus)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Electrification (Global grid)",
      "Antimicrobial properties (Hospital surfaces)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Wiring",
      "Plumbing",
      "Alloys (Bronze/Brass)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Toxic to invertebrates/aquatic life",
      "essential for humans"
    ]
  },
  "30": {
    "ions": "Zn²⁺ (Zinc)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "~1000 CE (India); 1746 (Europe isolation)",
      "discoveredBy": "Indian metallurgists; Andreas Sigismund Marggraf",
      "namedBy": "Paracelsus (from German Zinke)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Corrosion protection (Sacrificial anode)",
      "Biochemistry (Enzyme cofactor)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Galvanizing steel",
      "Die-casting",
      "Brass alloy"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Metal fume fever (from welding)"
    ]
  },
  "31": {
    "ions": "Ga³⁺ (Gallium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1875",
      "discoveredBy": "Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran",
      "namedBy": "Lecoq de Boisbaudran (Gallia/France)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Semiconductor physics (LEDs/Lasers)",
      "Mendeleev's 'Eka-aluminum'"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Blue/Violet LEDs (GaN)",
      "Integrated circuits",
      "High-temp thermometers"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Corrosive to aluminum (liquid metal embrittlement)"
    ]
  },
  "32": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1886",
      "discoveredBy": "Clemens Winkler",
      "namedBy": "Winkler (Germania/Germany)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Electronics history (First transistors were Ge)",
      "Fiber optics"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Fiber optics",
      "Infrared optics",
      "Polymerization catalysts"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Some organic compounds toxic"
    ]
  },
  "33": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "~1250 (Isolated)",
      "discoveredBy": "Albertus Magnus (attributed)",
      "namedBy": "From Persian zarnikh (yellow orpiment)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Toxicology (Historical poison)",
      "Semiconductor doping (n-type)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Semiconductors (GaAs)",
      "Wood preservatives (historical)",
      "Alloys"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly toxic",
      "Carcinogenic"
    ]
  },
  "34": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1817",
      "discoveredBy": "Jöns Jakob Berzelius",
      "namedBy": "From Greek selene (Moon)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Xerox process (Photoconductivity)",
      "Biological trace element"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Photocopying",
      "Glass decolorizing",
      "Solar cells"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Toxic in large amounts",
      "essential in trace amounts"
    ]
  },
  "35": {
    "ions": "Br⁻ (Bromide)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1826",
      "discoveredBy": "Antoine Jérôme Balard",
      "namedBy": "From Greek bromos (stench)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Flame retardants",
      "Ozone depletion"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Flame retardants",
      "Drilling fluids",
      "Photographic film (AgBr)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Corrosive liquid",
      "vapor is highly toxic"
    ]
  },
  "36": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1898",
      "discoveredBy": "William Ramsay & Morris Travers",
      "namedBy": "From Greek kryptos (hidden)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Measurement standards (Meter was defined by Kr-86 light 1960-1983)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "High-speed photography flashes",
      "Fluorescent bulbs",
      "Double-pane windows"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Asphyxiant",
      "Radioactive ⁸⁵Kr is a fission product"
    ]
  },
  "37": {
    "ions": "Rb⁺ (Rubidium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1861",
      "discoveredBy": "Robert Bunsen & Gustav Kirchhoff",
      "namedBy": "From Latin rubidius (deep red, from spectrum)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Geochronology (Dating of rocks/minerals)",
      "Atomic clocks"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Vacuum tube getters",
      "Photocells",
      "Atomic clocks"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Reacts violently with water (ignites spontaneously)"
    ]
  },
  "38": {
    "ions": "Sr²⁺ (Strontium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1790 (identified); 1808 (isolated)",
      "discoveredBy": "Adair Crawford (Id.); Humphry Davy (Iso.)",
      "namedBy": "From Strontian, Scotland"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Nuclear fallout tracking (Sr-90 mimics Calcium in bones)",
      "Fireworks"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Red fireworks/flares",
      "Glow-in-the-dark paints (SrAl₂O₄)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Sr-90 is a dangerous radiotoxin",
      "elemental Sr reacts with water"
    ]
  },
  "39": {
    "ions": "Y³⁺ (Yttrium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1794",
      "discoveredBy": "Johan Gadolin",
      "namedBy": "From Ytterby, Sweden"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Superconductors (YBCO)",
      "LEDs"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Red phosphors (CRTs/LEDs)",
      "Laser crystals (Nd:YAG)",
      "Superconductors"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Compounds can be toxic",
      "dust is flammable"
    ]
  },
  "40": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1789",
      "discoveredBy": "Martin Heinrich Klaproth",
      "namedBy": "From Persian zargun (gold-colored)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Nuclear energy (Fuel rod cladding due to low neutron absorption)",
      "Gemstones"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Nuclear fuel cladding",
      "Chemical piping",
      "Fake diamonds (CZ)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Powder is highly flammable/explosive",
      "biologically inert"
    ]
  },
  "41": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1801",
      "discoveredBy": "Charles Hatchett",
      "namedBy": "Niobe (daughter of Tantalus)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "MRI Technology (Superconducting magnets)",
      "Steel production"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Superconducting magnets (MRI)",
      "Pipelines",
      "Hypoallergenic jewelry"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Dust causes eye/skin irritation"
    ]
  },
  "42": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1778",
      "discoveredBy": "Carl Wilhelm Scheele",
      "namedBy": "From Greek molybdos (lead-like)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Enzymatic function (Essential for nitrogen fixation in plants)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "High-strength steel alloys",
      "Lubricants (MoS₂)",
      "Nuclear imaging (Mo-99 precursor)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Toxic in high doses",
      "essential trace element"
    ]
  },
  "43": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1937",
      "discoveredBy": "Carlo Perrier & Emilio Segrè",
      "namedBy": "From Greek technetos (artificial)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Nuclear Medicine (Tc-99m is the world's most used medical radiotracer)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Medical imaging (Bone scans, heart scans)",
      "Research"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive (radiotoxicity depends on isotope)"
    ]
  },
  "44": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1844",
      "discoveredBy": "Karl Ernst Claus",
      "namedBy": "From Ruthenia (Latin for Russia)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Green Chemistry (Catalysts)",
      "Electronics (Chip resistors)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Electrical contacts",
      "Hard disk drives",
      "Solar energy"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "RuO₄ is highly toxic and volatile"
    ]
  },
  "45": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1803",
      "discoveredBy": "William Hyde Wollaston",
      "namedBy": "From Greek rhodon (rose, due to salt color)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Automotive Industry (Catalytic converters for NOx reduction)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Catalytic converters (80% of use)",
      "Jewelry plating (gold finish)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Compounds are toxic/carcinogenic",
      "metal is inert"
    ]
  },
  "46": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1803",
      "discoveredBy": "William Hyde Wollaston",
      "namedBy": "From asteroid Pallas"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Hydrogen Economy (Can absorb 900x volume of H₂)",
      "Catalytic converters"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Catalytic converters",
      "Dentistry",
      "Fuel cells",
      "Hydrogen purification"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity",
      "but can cause allergic reactions"
    ]
  },
  "47": {
    "ions": "Ag⁺ (Silver)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "Prehistoric (~3000 BCE)",
      "discoveredBy": "Ancient Civilizations",
      "namedBy": "Anglo-Saxon seolfor (Symbol Ag from Latin argentum)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Medicine (Antibacterial properties)",
      "Photography (Traditional film chemistry)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Jewelry",
      "Electronics (Best conductor)",
      "Mirrors",
      "Solar panels"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Argyria (skin turns blue from chronic exposure)",
      "toxic to aquatic life"
    ]
  },
  "48": {
    "ions": "Cd²⁺ (Cadmium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1817",
      "discoveredBy": "Friedrich Stromeyer",
      "namedBy": "From Latin cadmia (calamine)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Environmental Pollution (Ni-Cd battery disposal)",
      "Pigments"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Ni-Cd Batteries (being phased out)",
      "Solar cells (CdTe)",
      "Pigments"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly toxic",
      "Carcinogen",
      "Accumulates in kidneys"
    ]
  },
  "49": {
    "ions": "In³⁺ (Indium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1863",
      "discoveredBy": "Ferdinand Reich & H.T. Richter",
      "namedBy": "From Indigo spectrum line"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Touchscreen Technology (Indium Tin Oxide films)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "LCD/OLED screens (ITO)",
      "Solders",
      "Semiconductors"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Compounds are toxic",
      "damage lungs/kidneys"
    ]
  },
  "50": {
    "ions": "Sn²⁺ (Tin(II)), Sn⁴⁺ (Tin(IV))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "Prehistoric (~3000 BCE)",
      "discoveredBy": "Ancient Civilizations (Bronze Age)",
      "namedBy": "Anglo-Saxon tin (Symbol Sn from Latin stannum)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Food Safety (Tin cans)",
      "Metallurgy (Bronze/Solder)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Solder (electronics)",
      "Plating (steel cans)",
      "Bronze alloys"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Organic tin compounds are toxic",
      "metal is non-toxic"
    ]
  },
  "51": {
    "ions": "Sb³⁻ (Antimonide), Sb³⁺ (Antimony(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "~3000 BCE",
      "discoveredBy": "Ancient Civilizations",
      "namedBy": "Symbol Sb from Latin stibium (eyeliner)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Fire Safety (Flame retardants)",
      "Lead-acid battery chemistry"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Flame retardants (Sb₂O₃)",
      "Lead-acid battery hardening",
      "Microelectronics"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Toxic (similar to Arsenic)",
      "causes poisoning"
    ]
  },
  "52": {
    "ions": "Te²⁻ (Telluride)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1782",
      "discoveredBy": "Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein",
      "namedBy": "From Latin tellus (Earth)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Renewable Energy (CdTe Solar Panels)",
      "Rewritable optical discs"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Solar panels",
      "Alloys (improve machinability)",
      "Thermoelectric devices"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Toxic",
      "ingestion causes garlic-like breath"
    ]
  },
  "53": {
    "ions": "I⁻ (Iodide)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1811",
      "discoveredBy": "Bernard Courtois",
      "namedBy": "From Greek iodes (violet)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Public Health (Iodized salt prevents goiter)",
      "Nuclear Safety (I-131 protection)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Disinfectant (Betadine)",
      "Contrast media (X-ray)",
      "Thyroid nutrient"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Vapors irritate eyes/lungs",
      "stains skin"
    ]
  },
  "54": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1898",
      "discoveredBy": "William Ramsay & Morris Travers",
      "namedBy": "From Greek xenos (stranger)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Space Propulsion (Ion thrusters)",
      "Medical Anesthesia"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Ion propulsion engines (satellites)",
      "High-intensity strobe lights",
      "General anesthetic"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Asphyxiant",
      "compounds (e.g., oxides) can be explosive"
    ]
  },
  "55": {
    "ions": "Cs⁺ (Cesium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1860",
      "discoveredBy": "Robert Bunsen & Gustav Kirchhoff",
      "namedBy": "From Latin caesius (sky blue spectrum line)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Global Timekeeping (Definition of the Second based on Cs-133)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Atomic clocks (GPS standard)",
      "Drilling fluids (Cesium formate)",
      "Photoelectric cells"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Reacts explosively with cold water"
    ]
  },
  "56": {
    "ions": "Ba²⁺ (Barium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1808",
      "discoveredBy": "Humphry Davy",
      "namedBy": "From Greek barys (heavy)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Medical Imaging (Barium swallow X-rays)",
      "Oil Well Drilling"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Drilling muds (Barite)",
      "Fireworks (Green color)",
      "Medical contrast agent"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Soluble compounds are toxic",
      "BaSO₄ is safe (insoluble)"
    ]
  },
  "57": {
    "ions": "La³⁺ (Lanthanum)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1839",
      "discoveredBy": "Carl Gustaf Mosander",
      "namedBy": "From Greek lanthanein (to lie hidden)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Hybrid Vehicles (NiMH batteries)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Camera lenses (High refractive index glass)",
      "Hybrid car batteries",
      "Lighter flints"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity",
      "dust is flammable"
    ]
  },
  "58": {
    "ions": "Ce³⁺ (Cerium(III)), Ce⁴⁺ (Cerium(IV))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1803",
      "discoveredBy": "Martin Heinrich Klaproth, Jöns Jakob Berzelius",
      "namedBy": "From asteroid Ceres"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Emissions Control (Diesel additives)",
      "Self-cleaning ovens"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Catalytic converters",
      "Mischmetal (lighter flints)",
      "Glass polishing"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Pyrophoric (sparks when struck)",
      "low toxicity"
    ]
  },
  "59": {
    "ions": "Pr³⁺ (Praseodymium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1885",
      "discoveredBy": "Carl Auer von Welsbach",
      "namedBy": "From Greek prasios didymos (green twin)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Renewable Energy (Magnets in wind turbines)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "High-strength magnets (alloyed with Nd)",
      "Didymium glass (welder's goggles)",
      "Yellow pigments"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity",
      "dust is flammable"
    ]
  },
  "60": {
    "ions": "Nd³⁺ (Neodymium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1885",
      "discoveredBy": "Carl Auer von Welsbach",
      "namedBy": "From Greek neos didymos (new twin)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Green Technology (Essential for EV motors and Wind Turbines)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Strongest permanent magnets (NdFeB)",
      "Lasers (Nd:YAG)",
      "Glass coloring (purple)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Dust is flammable",
      "magnets can cause pinching injuries"
    ]
  },
  "61": {
    "ions": "Pm³⁺ (Promethium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1945",
      "discoveredBy": "Marinsky, Glendenin, Coryell",
      "namedBy": "From Prometheus (Greek titan who stole fire)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Nuclear Batteries (Betavoltaics)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Nuclear batteries for guided missiles/pacemakers",
      "Luminous paint"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "62": {
    "ions": "Sm²⁺ (Samarium(II)), Sm³⁺ (Samarium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1879",
      "discoveredBy": "Lecoq de Boisbaudran",
      "namedBy": "From Mineral Samarskite"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Magnet Technology (SmCo magnets)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Samarium-Cobalt magnets (high temp stability)",
      "Cancer treatment (Sm-153)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity"
    ]
  },
  "63": {
    "ions": "Eu²⁺ (Europium(II)), Eu³⁺ (Europium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1901",
      "discoveredBy": "Eugène-Anatole Demarçay",
      "namedBy": "From Europe"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Anti-counterfeiting (Glowing dyes in Euro banknotes)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Red phosphors in TV screens/LEDs",
      "Fluorescent probes"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Reacts vividly with water",
      "non-toxic"
    ]
  },
  "64": {
    "ions": "Gd³⁺ (Gadolinium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1880",
      "discoveredBy": "Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac",
      "namedBy": "From Mineral Gadolinite (after Johan Gadolin)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Medical Imaging (MRI Contrast Agents)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "MRI Contrast agents (Magnevist)",
      "Neutron shielding",
      "Magnetic refrigeration"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Free ion is toxic",
      "chelated form used medically"
    ]
  },
  "65": {
    "ions": "Tb³⁺ (Terbium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1843",
      "discoveredBy": "Carl Gustaf Mosander",
      "namedBy": "From Ytterby, Sweden"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Green Energy (Low-energy lighting phosphors)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Green phosphors (fluorescent lamps)",
      "Terfenol-D (magnetostrictive alloy)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity"
    ]
  },
  "66": {
    "ions": "Dy³⁺ (Dysprosium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1886",
      "discoveredBy": "Lecoq de Boisbaudran",
      "namedBy": "From Greek dysprositos (hard to get)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Electric Vehicles (Magnet additives)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Neodymium magnet additive (increases heat resistance)",
      "Control rods"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity",
      "dust is flammable"
    ]
  },
  "67": {
    "ions": "Ho³⁺ (Holmium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1878",
      "discoveredBy": "Jacques-Louis Soret",
      "namedBy": "From Holmia (Latin for Stockholm)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Medical Surgery (Ho:YAG Lasers)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Surgical lasers (kidney stones)",
      "Strongest magnetic fields (magnetic flux concentrator)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity"
    ]
  },
  "68": {
    "ions": "Er³⁺ (Erbium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1843",
      "discoveredBy": "Carl Gustaf Mosander",
      "namedBy": "From Ytterby, Sweden"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Telecommunications (Fiber optic signal amplifiers)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "EDFA (Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers)",
      "Dermatology lasers",
      "Pink glass coloring"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity"
    ]
  },
  "69": {
    "ions": "Tm³⁺ (Thulium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1879",
      "discoveredBy": "Per Teodor Cleve",
      "namedBy": "From Thule (mythical North)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Portable X-rays (Tm-170 source)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Portable X-ray machines",
      "Lasers",
      "Euro banknotes"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity"
    ]
  },
  "70": {
    "ions": "Yb²⁺ (Ytterbium(II)), Yb³⁺ (Ytterbium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1878",
      "discoveredBy": "Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac",
      "namedBy": "From Ytterby, Sweden"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Atomic Clocks (World's most stable clocks)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Fiber lasers",
      "Stress gauges",
      "Atomic clocks"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Eye/skin irritant"
    ]
  },
  "71": {
    "ions": "Lu³⁺ (Lutetium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1907",
      "discoveredBy": "Georges Urbain",
      "namedBy": "From Lutetia (Paris)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Cancer Therapy (Lu-177 radiotherapy)",
      "Petroleum cracking"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "PET scan detectors (LSO crystals)",
      "Cancer treatment",
      "Catalysts"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity"
    ]
  },
  "72": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1923",
      "discoveredBy": "Dirk Coster & George de Hevesy",
      "namedBy": "From Hafnia (Copenhagen)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Nuclear Reactors (Control rods)",
      "Microprocessors"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Nuclear control rods (absorbs neutrons)",
      "Plasma cutting tips",
      "Intel chips (high-k dielectric)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Fine dust is pyrophoric"
    ]
  },
  "73": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1802",
      "discoveredBy": "Anders Gustaf Ekeberg",
      "namedBy": "From Tantalus (Greek mythology)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Electronics Supply Chain (\"Conflict mineral\")"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Capacitors in smartphones/laptops",
      "Surgical implants (inert)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity",
      "biocompatible"
    ]
  },
  "74": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1783",
      "discoveredBy": "Juan José & Fausto Elhuyar",
      "namedBy": "Swedish tung sten (heavy stone); Symbol W from Wolfram"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Lighting (Incandescent filaments)",
      "Military (Kinetic bombardment)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Light bulb filaments",
      "TIG welding",
      "Armor-piercing ammunition"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Dust irritates lungs",
      "largely non-toxic"
    ]
  },
  "75": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1925",
      "discoveredBy": "Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, Otto Berg",
      "namedBy": "From Rhenus (Rhine River)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Aerospace (Jet engine superalloys)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Jet engine turbine blades",
      "Thermocouples",
      "Catalysts"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity"
    ]
  },
  "76": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1803",
      "discoveredBy": "Smithson Tennant",
      "namedBy": "From Greek osme (smell)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Density limits (Densest naturally occurring substance)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Fountain pen tips",
      "Electrical contacts",
      "Fingerprint detection"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "OsO₄ is extremely toxic and volatile (causes blindness)"
    ]
  },
  "77": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1803",
      "discoveredBy": "Smithson Tennant",
      "namedBy": "From Greek iris (rainbow, due to salt colors)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Geology (K-Pg boundary layer evidence for Dinosaur extinction)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Spark plugs",
      "Crucibles",
      "Standard Metre Bar (Pt-Ir alloy)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity",
      "dust is flammable"
    ]
  },
  "78": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1735",
      "discoveredBy": "Antonio de Ulloa",
      "namedBy": "From Spanish platina (little silver)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Green Technology (Hydrogen Fuel Cells)",
      "Medicine (Chemotherapy)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Catalytic converters",
      "Jewelry",
      "Pacemaker electrodes",
      "Cisplatin (cancer drug)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Metallic Pt is inert",
      "salts can cause asthma"
    ]
  },
  "79": {
    "ions": "Au⁺ (Gold(I)), Au³⁺ (Gold(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "Prehistoric (~6000 BCE)",
      "discoveredBy": "Ancient Civilizations",
      "namedBy": "Anglo-Saxon gold (Symbol Au from Latin aurum)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Economics (Gold Standard)",
      "Electronics (Corrosion-free contacts)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Currency/Jewelry",
      "Electronics plating",
      "Radiation shielding"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Non-toxic (edible in leaf form)"
    ]
  },
  "80": {
    "ions": "Hg₂²⁺ (Mercury(I)), Hg²⁺ (Mercury(II))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "~1500 BCE",
      "discoveredBy": "Ancient Egyptians/Chinese",
      "namedBy": "From Planet Mercury (Symbol Hg from hydrargyrum)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Environmental Toxicology (Minamata disease)",
      "Bioaccumulation in fish"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Thermometers (historical)",
      "Dental amalgam",
      "Fluorescent bulbs"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly toxic neurotoxin (vapor and compounds)"
    ]
  },
  "81": {
    "ions": "Tl⁺ (Thallium(I)), Tl³⁺ (Thallium(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1861",
      "discoveredBy": "William Crookes",
      "namedBy": "From Greek thallos (green twig)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Forensic Science (\"The Poisoner's Poison\")"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Rat poison (banned)",
      "Electronics",
      "Cardiac stress tests (Tl-201)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Extremely toxic",
      "accumulates in body"
    ]
  },
  "82": {
    "ions": "Pb²⁺ (Lead(II)), Pb⁴⁺ (Lead(IV))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "~7000 BCE",
      "discoveredBy": "Ancient Civilizations",
      "namedBy": "Anglo-Saxon lead (Symbol Pb from Latin plumbum)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Public Health (Flint Water Crisis)",
      "Environmental banning (Leaded gasoline)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Car batteries (Pb-acid)",
      "Radiation shielding",
      "Bullets"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Potent neurotoxin",
      "affects IQ in children"
    ]
  },
  "83": {
    "ions": "Bi³⁺ (Bismuth(III))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "~1000 CE",
      "discoveredBy": "Alchemists (confused with Pb/Sn)",
      "namedBy": "German Wismut (mass)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Green Chemistry (Non-toxic lead replacement)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Pepto-Bismol (Stomach relief)",
      "Lead-free shot/solder",
      "Fire sprinklers"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low toxicity (unusual for heavy metals)"
    ]
  },
  "84": {
    "ions": "Po²⁺ (Polonium(II)), Po⁴⁺ (Polonium(IV))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1898",
      "discoveredBy": "Marie & Pierre Curie",
      "namedBy": "From Poland (Marie's homeland)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Nuclear Assassination (Litvinenko poisoning)",
      "Static elimination"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Anti-static brushes",
      "Heat source in satellites (rare)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Extremely radiotoxic (alpha emitter)",
      "fatal in micrograms"
    ]
  },
  "85": {
    "ions": "At⁻ (Astatide, predicted)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1940",
      "discoveredBy": "Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, Emilio Segrè",
      "namedBy": "From Greek astatos (unstable)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Targeted Alpha Therapy (Cancer treatment research)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Medical research only (rarest natural element)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "86": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1900",
      "discoveredBy": "Friedrich Ernst Dorn",
      "namedBy": "Derived from Radium"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Indoor Air Quality (Lung cancer risk in basements)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Radiation therapy (historical)",
      "Earthquake prediction research"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive gas",
      "carcinogen via inhalation"
    ]
  },
  "87": {
    "ions": "Fr⁺ (Francium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1939",
      "discoveredBy": "Marguerite Perey",
      "namedBy": "From France"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Fundamental Physics (Parity violation studies)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only (due to extreme scarcity and radioactivity)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "88": {
    "ions": "Ra²⁺ (Radium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1898",
      "discoveredBy": "Marie & Pierre Curie",
      "namedBy": "Latin radius (ray)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Labor Rights (\"Radium Girls\" poisoning cases)",
      "History of Oncology"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Historical glow-in-the-dark paint (banned)",
      "Cancer treatment (Ra-223)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly radiotoxic bone seeker (mimics Calcium)"
    ]
  },
  "89": {
    "ions": "Ac³⁺ (Actinium)",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1899",
      "discoveredBy": "André-Louis Debierne",
      "namedBy": "Greek aktis (ray)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT) for cancer"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Neutron source",
      "Immunotherapy (Ac-225)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "90": {
    "ions": "Th⁴⁺ (Thorium(IV))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1829",
      "discoveredBy": "Jöns Jakob Berzelius",
      "namedBy": "Thor (Norse god of thunder)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Future Energy (Thorium molten salt reactors)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Gas lantern mantles",
      "TIG welding electrodes",
      "Nuclear fuel potential"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Low radioactivity",
      "heavy metal toxicity"
    ]
  },
  "91": {
    "ions": "Pa⁴⁺ (Protactinium(IV))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1913",
      "discoveredBy": "Fajans & Göhring",
      "namedBy": "Greek protos (first) + actinium"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Radiometric dating (Protactinium-Thorium dating)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly toxic and radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "92": {
    "ions": "U³⁺ (Uranium(III)), U⁴⁺ (Uranium(IV))",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1789",
      "discoveredBy": "Martin Heinrich Klaproth",
      "namedBy": "Planet Uranus"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Nuclear Age (Fission power, Atomic weapons)",
      "Geothermal heat (Earth's core)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Nuclear fuel",
      "Armor plating (Depleted U)",
      "Yellow glass (historical)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radiotoxic and chemotoxic (kidney damage)"
    ]
  },
  "93": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1940",
      "discoveredBy": "McMillan & Abelson",
      "namedBy": "Planet Neptune"
    },
    "stse": [
      "First transuranic element"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Precursor to Pu-238 production; Neutron detectors"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "94": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1940",
      "discoveredBy": "Seaborg, McMillan, Kennedy, Wahl",
      "namedBy": "Planet Pluto"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Global Security (Nuclear non-proliferation)",
      "Space Exploration (RTG batteries)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Nuclear weapons",
      "RTG power for spacecraft (Voyager/Mars rovers)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Extremely radiotoxic",
      "criticality hazard"
    ]
  },
  "95": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1944",
      "discoveredBy": "Glenn T. Seaborg et al.",
      "namedBy": "The Americas"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Domestic Safety (Ionization smoke detectors)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Smoke detectors (Am-241)",
      "Neutron sources"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive (accumulates in bones)"
    ]
  },
  "96": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1944",
      "discoveredBy": "Seaborg, James, Ghiorso",
      "namedBy": "Marie & Pierre Curie"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Space Exploration (Alpha particle X-ray Spectrometers)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Alpha source in Mars Rovers (APXS)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "97": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1949",
      "discoveredBy": "Thompson, Ghiorso, Seaborg",
      "namedBy": "Berkeley, California"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Heavy Element Synthesis (Target material)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Synthesizing Tennessine (Element 117)"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "98": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1950",
      "discoveredBy": "Thompson, Street, Ghiorso, Seaborg",
      "namedBy": "State of California"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Industrial Sensing (Neutron moisture gauges)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Neutron startup source for reactors",
      "Gold/Oil prospecting"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Intense neutron emitter"
    ]
  },
  "99": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1952",
      "discoveredBy": "Albert Ghiorso et al.",
      "namedBy": "Albert Einstein"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Cold War Science (Discovered in \"Ivy Mike\" H-bomb debris)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "100": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1952",
      "discoveredBy": "Albert Ghiorso et al.",
      "namedBy": "Enrico Fermi"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Limit of neutron capture (Heaviest element formable by bombardment)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "101": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1955",
      "discoveredBy": "Ghiorso, Harvey, Choppin, Thompson, Seaborg",
      "namedBy": "Dmitri Mendeleev"
    },
    "stse": [
      "\"Atom-at-a-time\" synthesis (First element made this way)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "102": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1966",
      "discoveredBy": "JINR (Russia)",
      "namedBy": "Alfred Nobel"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Naming controversy (Disputed between USA, Sweden, USSR)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "103": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1961",
      "discoveredBy": "Ghiorso et al.",
      "namedBy": "Ernest Lawrence"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Periodicity Debate (Placement in d-block vs f-block)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "104": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1964",
      "discoveredBy": "Dubna (USSR) / Berkeley (USA)",
      "namedBy": "Ernest Rutherford"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Cold War Science (Transfermium Wars)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "105": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1968",
      "discoveredBy": "Dubna (USSR) / Berkeley (USA)",
      "namedBy": "Dubna, Russia"
    },
    "stse": [
      "International cooperation (IUPAC naming resolution)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "106": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1974",
      "discoveredBy": "Lawrence Berkeley Lab",
      "namedBy": "Glenn T. Seaborg"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Naming Controversy (First element named after a living person)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "107": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1981",
      "discoveredBy": "GSI Helmholtz Centre (Germany)",
      "namedBy": "Niels Bohr"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Heavy Ion Research"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "108": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1984",
      "discoveredBy": "GSI Helmholtz Centre (Germany)",
      "namedBy": "State of Hesse (Hassia)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Superheavy Chemistry (Proven to form volatile tetroxide HsO₄)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "109": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1982",
      "discoveredBy": "GSI Helmholtz Centre (Germany)",
      "namedBy": "Lise Meitner"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Women in Science (Meitner discovered fission but was overlooked for Nobel)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "110": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1994",
      "discoveredBy": "GSI Helmholtz Centre (Germany)",
      "namedBy": "Darmstadt, Germany"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Ion Beam Technology"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "111": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1994",
      "discoveredBy": "GSI Helmholtz Centre (Germany)",
      "namedBy": "Wilhelm Röntgen"
    },
    "stse": [
      "History of X-rays"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "112": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1996",
      "discoveredBy": "GSI Helmholtz Centre (Germany)",
      "namedBy": "Nicolaus Copernicus"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Relativistic Chemistry (Acts more like a noble gas than a metal)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "113": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "2003",
      "discoveredBy": "RIKEN (Japan)",
      "namedBy": "From Nihon (Japan)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "First element discovered in Asia"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "114": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "1998",
      "discoveredBy": "JINR (Russia)",
      "namedBy": "Flerov Laboratory"
    },
    "stse": [
      "\"Island of Stability\" research"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "115": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "2003",
      "discoveredBy": "JINR (Russia) & Vanderbilt/LLNL (USA)",
      "namedBy": "Moscow Region"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Extreme matter synthesis"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "116": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "2000",
      "discoveredBy": "LLNL (USA) & JINR (Russia)",
      "namedBy": "Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory"
    },
    "stse": [
      "International Science Collaboration"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "117": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "2010",
      "discoveredBy": "JINR (Russia), ORNL/Vanderbilt (USA)",
      "namedBy": "State of Tennessee (Oak Ridge Lab)"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Synthesis required Berkelium target"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Highly radioactive"
    ]
  },
  "118": {
    "ions": "No common ions",
    "history": {
      "discoveryYear": "2002",
      "discoveredBy": "JINR (Russia) & LLNL (USA)",
      "namedBy": "Yuri Oganessian"
    },
    "stse": [
      "Relativistic Effects (Predicted to be solid, not gas)"
    ],
    "uses": [
      "Research only"
    ],
    "hazards": [
      "Radioactive"
    ]
  }
}